Genetically Foods Essay Example for Free

Genetically Foods EssayGenetically-modified food for thoughts (GM foods) relieve oneself made a big splash in the news lately. European environmental organizations and overt interest groups have been actively pro exam against GM foods for months, and recent controversial studies about the effects of ancestralally-modified corn pollen on monarch butterfly caterpillars1, 2 have brought the out of genetic engineering to the forefront of the public consciousness in the U. S. In response to the upswelling of public vex, the U. S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA) held three open contacts in Chicago, Washington, D. C., and Oakland, California to solicit public opinions and begin the process of establishing a new regulatory procedure for government approval of GM foods3. I attended the FDA meeting held in November 1999 in Washington, D. C. , and here I leave behind attempt to summarize the issues winding and explain the U. S. governments present role in regulating GM food. What argon genetically-modified foods? The term GM foods or GMOs (genetically-modified organisms) is most commonly theatrical roled to refer to crop appoints created for clement or wight consumption using the latest molecular biology techniques.These engrafts have been modified in the laboratory to enhance desired traits such as increased resi locating to herbicides or improved nutritional content. The sweetener of desired traits has traditionally been chthoniantaken through breeding, but conventional found breeding methods can be very time consuming and ar often non very accurate. Genetic engineering, on the other hand, can create plants with the exact desired trait very rapidly and with great accuracy. For example, plant geneticists can impound a gene responsible for drought valuation reserve and insert that gene into a different plant.The new genetically-modified plant will gain drought tolerance as well. Not only can genes be transferred from one plant to another, but genes from non-plant organisms in addition can be handlingd. The best known example of this is the use of B. t. genes in corn and other crops. B. t. , or Bacillus thuringiensis, is a naturally occurring bacterium that produces crystal proteins that are lethal to insect larvae. B. t. crystal protein genes have been transferred into corn, alter the corn to produce its own pesticides against insects such as the European corn borer.For two informative overviews of some of the techniques involved in creating GM foods, visit Biotech fundamental principle (sponsored by Monsanto) http//www. biotechknowledge. monsanto. com/biotech/bbasics. nsf/index or Techniques of Plant Bio applied science from the National Center for Biotechnology Education http//www. ncbe. reading. ac. uk/NCBE/GMFOOD/techniques. What are some of the advantages of GM foods? The world population has excel 6 billion people and is predicted to double in the next 50 divisions. Ensuring an adequate food supply for this booming population is going to be a major challenge in the years to come.GM foods promise to meet this need in a number of ways Pest resistance rationalise empoweringes from insect pests can be staggering, resulting in devastating financial loss for farmers and starvation in developing countries. Farmers typically use some slews of chemical pesticides annually. Consumers do not wish to eat food that has been treated with pesticides because of strength health hazards, and run-off of agricultural wastes from excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers can poison the pissing supply and cause harm to the environment.Growing GM foods such as B. t.corn can help eliminate the application of chemical pesticides and reduce the cost of delivery a crop to market4, 5. Herbicide tolerance For some crops, it is not cost-effective to remove weeds by physical means such as tilling, so farmers will often spray large quantities of different herbicides (weed-killer) to record weeds, a time-co nsuming and expensive process, that commands care so that the herbicide doesnt harm the crop plant or the environment. Crop plants genetically-engineered to be resistant to one very business officeful herbicide could help prevent environmental damage by reducing the numerate of herbicides needed.For example, Monsanto has created a strain of soybeans genetically modified to be not affected by their herbicide product Roundup 6. A farmer sticks these soybeans which then only require one application of weed-killer instead of multiple applications, reducing production cost and limiting the dangers of agricultural waste run-off7. Disease resistance There are many viruses, fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant biologists are working to create plants with genetically-engineered resistance to these diseases8, 9.Cold tolerance Unexpected frost can destroy sensitive seedlings. An antifreeze gene from cold water fish has been introduced into plants such as tobacco and potato. With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to tolerate cold temperatures that normally would kill unadapted seedlings10. (Note I have not been able to find any journal articles or patents that involve fish antifreeze proteins in strawberries, although I have seen such reports in newspapers. I can only conclude that nothing on this application has yet been published or patented.)Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance As the world population grows and more land is utilized for housing instead of food production, farmers will need to grow crops in locations previously unsuited for plant cultivation. Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought or high salt content in soil and groundwater will help people to grow crops in formerly inhospitable places11, 12. Nutrition Malnutrition is common in third world countries where poverty-stricken peoples rely on a single crop such as strain for the main staple of their diet.However, rice does not contain adequate amounts of a ll necessary nutrients to prevent malnutrition. If rice could be genetically engineered to contain additional vitamins and minerals, nutrient deficiencies could be alleviated. For example, blindness due to vitamin A deficiency is a common problem in third world countries. Researchers at the Swiss federal official Institute of Technology Institute for Plant Sciences have created a strain of golden rice containing an unusually high content of beta-carotene (vitamin A)13.Since this rice was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation14, a non-profit organization, the Institute hopes to offer the golden rice seed free to any third world country that requests it. Plans were underway to develop a golden rice that also has increased iron content. However, the grant that funded the introduction of these two rice strains was not renewed, perhaps because of the vigorous anti-GM food pro scrutiny in Europe, and so this nutritionally-enhanced rice whitethorn not come to market at all15.Pharmaceutica ls Medicines and vaccines often are costly to produce and sometimes require special storage conditions not readily obtainable in third world countries. Researchers are working to develop edible vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes16, 17. These vaccines will be much easier to ship, store and administer than traditional injectable vaccines. Phytoremediation Not all GM plants are bounteous as crops. Soil and groundwater pollution continues to be a problem in all parts of the world. Plants such as poplar trees have been genetically engineered to clean up heavy metal pollution from contaminated soil18.How prevalent are GM crops? What plants are involved? According to the FDA and the United States Department of Agriculture ( farming), there are over 40 plant varieties that have completed all of the federal requirements for commercialization (http//vm. cfsan. fda. gov/%7Elrd/biocon). just about examples of these plants include tomatoes and cantalopes that have modified ripening characteris tics, soybeans and sugarbeets that are resistant to herbicides, and corn and like plants with increased resistance to insect pests.Not all these products are visible(prenominal) in supermarkets yet however, the prevalence of GM foods in U. S. grocery stores is more widespread than is commonly thought. While there are very, very few genetically-modified full fruits and vegetables available on produce stands, highly processed foods, such as vegetable oils or breakfast cereals, most likely contain some minute percentage of genetically-modified ingredients because the raw ingredients have been pooled into one processing stream from many different sources.Also, the ubiquity of soybean derivatives as food additives in the modern American diet virtually ensures that all U. S. consumers have been exposed to GM food products. The U. S. statistics that follow are derived from data presented on the USDA web site at http//www. ers. usda. gov/briefing/biotechnology/. The global statistics ar e derived from a brief published by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) at http//www. isaaa. org/publications/briefs/Brief_21. htm and from the Biotechnology exertion Organization at http//www. bio.org/foodag/1999Acreage.Thirteen countries grew genetically-engineered crops commercially in 2000, and of these, the U. S. produced the majority. In 2000, 68% of all GM crops were grown by U. S. farmers. In comparison, Argentina, Canada and China produced only 23%, 7% and 1%, respectively. Other countries that grew commercial GM crops in 2000 are Australia, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Mexico, Romania, South Africa, Spain, and Uruguay. Soybeans and corn are the top two most widely grown crops (82% of all GM crops harvested in 2000), with cotton, rapeseed (or canola) and potatoes trailing behind.74% of these GM crops were modified for herbicide tolerance, 19% were modified for insect pest resistance, and 7% were modified for twain herbicide tol erance and pest tolerance. Globally, acreage of GM crops has increased 25-fold in just 5 years, from approximately 4. 3 million acres in 1996 to 109 million acres in 2000 almost twice the area of the United Kingdom. Approximately 99 million acres were devoted to GM crops in the U. S. and Argentina alone. In the U. S. , approximately 54% of all soybeans civilized in 2000 were genetically-modified, up from 42% in 1998 and only 7% in 1996.In 2000, genetically-modified cotton varieties accounted for 61% of the correspond cotton crop, up from 42% in 1998, and 15% in 1996. GM corn and also experienced a similar but less dramatic increase. Corn production increased to 25% of all corn grown in 2000, about the same as 1998 (26%), but up from 1. 5% in 1996. As anticipated, pesticide and herbicide use on these GM varieties was slashed and, for the most part, yields were increased (for details, see the UDSA publication at http//www. ers. usda. gov/publications/aer786/). What are some of th e criticisms against GM foods?environmental activists, religious organizations, public interest groups, professional associations and other scientists and government officials have all rised tinges about GM foods, and criticized agribusiness for pursuing profit without concern for potential hazards, and the government for failing to exercise adequate regulatory oversight. It seems that everyone has a strong opinion about GM foods. Even the Vatican19 and the Prince of Wales20 have expressed their opinions. closely concerns about GM foods rowlock into three categories environmental hazards, human health risks, and stinting concerns.Environmental hazards Unintended harm to other organisms Last year a laboratory probe was published in Nature21 showing that pollen from B. t. corn caused high mortality rates in monarch butterfly caterpillars. Monarch caterpillars consume milkweed plants, not corn, but the fear is that if pollen from B. t. corn is blown by the wind onto milkweed plan ts in neighboring fields, the caterpillars could eat the pollen and perish. Although the Nature study was not conducted under natural field conditions, the results seemed to support this viewpoint.Unfortunately, B. t. toxins kill many species of insect larvae indiscriminately it is not possible to design a B. t. toxin that would only kill crop-damaging pests and remain harmless to all other insects. This study is being reexamined by the USDA, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other non-government research groups, and preliminary data from new studies suggests that the original study may have been flawed22, 23. This topic is the subject of acrimonious debate, and both sides of the argument are defending their data vigorously.Currently, there is no agreement about the results of these studies, and the potential risk of harm to non-target organisms will need to be evaluated further. Reduced effectiveness of pesticides Just as some populations of mosquitoes developed resistance to the now-banned pesticide DDT, many people are concerned that insects will become resistant to B. t. or other crops that have been genetically-modified to produce their own pesticides.Gene transfer to non-target species Another concern is that crop plants engineered for herbicide tolerance and weeds will deal-breed, resulting in the transfer of the herbicide resistance genes from the crops into the weeds. These superweeds would then be herbicide tolerant as well. Other introduced genes may cross over into non-modified crops planted next to GM crops. The possibility of interbreeding is shown by the defense of farmers against lawsuits filed by Monsanto. The company has filed patent infringement lawsuits against farmers who may have harvested GM crops. Monsanto claims that the farmers obtained Monsanto-licensed GM seeds from an unknown source and did not pay royalties to Monsanto.The farmers claim that their unmodified crops were cross-pollinated from someone elses GM cro ps planted a field or two away. more than investigation is needed to resolve this issue. There are several possible solutions to the three problems mentioned above. Genes are exchanged between plants via pollen. Two ways to ensure that non-target species will not receive introduced genes from GM plants are to create GM plants that are male sterile (do not produce pollen) or to modify the GM plant so that the pollen does not contain the introduced gene24, 25, 26.Cross-pollination would not occur, and if harmless insects such as monarch caterpillars were to eat pollen from GM plants, the caterpillars would survive. Another possible solution is to create fan zones around fields of GM crops27, 28, 29. For example, non-GM corn would be planted to surround a field of B. t. GM corn, and the non-GM corn would not be harvested. Beneficial or harmless insects would have a refuge in the non-GM corn, and insect pests could be allowed to destroy the non-GM corn and would not develop resistance to B. t. pesticides.Gene transfer to weeds and other crops would not occur because the wind-blown pollen would not travel beyond the buffer zone. Estimates of the necessary width of buffer zones range from 6 meters to 30 meters or more30. This plant method may not be feasible if too much acreage is needful for the buffer zones. Human health risks Allergenicity Many children in the US and Europe have developed life-threatening allergies to peanuts and other foods. There is a possibility that introducing a gene into a plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals.A proposal to incorporate a gene from Brazil nuts into soybeans was delinquent because of the fear of causing unexpected allergic reactions31. Extensive testing of GM foods may be required to avoid the possibility of harm to consumers with food allergies. Labeling of GM foods and food products will acquire new importance, which I shall discuss later. Unknown effects on human healt h There is a growing concern that introducing foreign genes into food plants may have an unexpected and negative impact on human health.A recent article published in fishgig examined the effects of GM potatoes on the digestive tract in rats32, 33. This study claimed that there were appreciable differences in the intestines of rats fed GM potatoes and rats fed unmodified potatoes. tho critics say that this paper, like the monarch butterfly data, is flawed and does not hold up to scientific scrutiny34. Moreover, the gene introduced into the potatoes was a snowdrop flower lectin, a message known to be toxic to mammals.The scientists who created this variety of potato chose to use the lectin gene simply to test the methodology, and these potatoes were never intended for human or animal consumption. On the whole, with the exception of possible allergenicity, scientists believe that GM foods do not present a risk to human health. Economic concerns Bringing a GM food to market is a leng thy and costly process, and of course agri-biotech companies wish to ensure a profitable return on their investment. Many new plant genetic engineering technologies and GM plants have been patented, and patent infringement is a big concern of agribusiness.Yet consumer advocates are worried that patenting these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high that small farmers and third world countries will not be able to afford seeds for GM crops, thus widening the time out between the wealthy and the poor. It is hoped that in a humanitarian gesture, more companies and non-profits will follow the lead of the Rockefeller Foundation and offer their products at reduced cost to impoverished nations. Patent enforcement may also be difficult, as the contention of the farmers that they involuntarily grew Monsanto-engineered strains when their crops were cross-pollinated shows.One way to combat possible patent infringement is to introduce a suicide gene into GM plants. These plan ts would be viable for only one growing season and would produce sterile seeds that do not germinate. Farmers would need to get a fresh supply of seeds each year. However, this would be financially disastrous for farmers in third world countries who cannot afford to buy seed each year and traditionally set aside a portion of their harvest to plant in the next growing season.In an open letter to the public, Monsanto has pledged to dispense with all research using this suicide gene technology35. How are GM foods regulated and what is the governments role in this process? Governments around the world are baffling at work to establish a regulatory process to monitor the effects of and approve new varieties of GM plants. Yet depending on the political, social and economic climate within a region or country, different governments are responding in different ways.In Japan, the Ministry of Health and Welfare has announced that health testing of GM foods will be mandatory as of April 2001 36, 37. Currently, testing of GM foods is voluntary. Japanese supermarkets are offering both GM foods and unmodified foods, and customers are parentage to show a strong preference for unmodified fruits and vegetables. Indias government has not yet announced a policy on GM foods because no GM crops are grown in India and no products are commercially available in supermarkets yet38.India is, however, very supportive of transgenic plant research. It is highly likely that India will find that the benefits of GM foods outweigh the risks because Indian agriculture will need to adopt drastic new measures to counteract the countrys endemic poverty and feed its exploding population. Some states in Brazil have banned GM crops entirely, and the Brazilian Institute for the Defense of Consumers, in collaboration with Greenpeace, has filed suit to prevent the importation of GM crops39,.Brazilian farmers, however, have resorted to smuggling GM soybean seeds into the country because they fear eco nomic harm if they are unable to compete in the global marketplace with other grain-exporting countries. In Europe, anti-GM food protestors have been especially active. In the last few years Europe has experienced two major foods scares bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) in Great Britain and dioxin-tainted foods originating from Belgium. These food scares have undermined consumer confidence about the European food supply, and citizens are disinclined to trust government information about GM foods.In response to the public outcry, Europe now requires mandatory food chase aftering of GM foods in stores, and the European Commission (EC) has established a 1% threshold for befoulment of unmodified foods with GM food products40. In the United States, the regulatory process is confused because there are three different government agencies that have jurisdiction over GM foods. To put it very simply, the EPA evaluates GM plants for environmental natural rubber, the USDA e valuates whether the plant is safe to grow, and the FDA evaluates whether the plant is safe to eat.The EPA is responsible for regulating substances such as pesticides or toxins that may cause harm to the environment. GM crops such as B. t. pesticide-laced corn or herbicide-tolerant crops but not foods modified for their nutritional value fall under the purview of the EPA. The USDA is responsible for GM crops that do not fall under the umbrella of the EPA such as drought-tolerant or disease-tolerant crops, crops grown for animal feeds, or whole fruits, vegetables and grains for human consumption. The FDA historically has been concerned with pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and food products and additives, not whole foods.Under live guidelines, a genetically-modified ear of corn sold at a produce stand is not regulated by the FDA because it is a whole food, but a box of cornflakes is regulated because it is a food product. The FDAs stance is that GM foods are substantially equivalent to un modified, natural foods, and therefore not subject to FDA regulation. The EPA conducts risk assessment studies on pesticides that could potentially cause harm to human health and the environment, and establishes tolerance and residue levels for pesticides.There are strict limits on the amount of pesticides that may be applied to crops during growth and production, as well as the amount that remains in the food after processing. Growers using pesticides must(prenominal) have a license for each pesticide and must follow the directions on the label to accord with the EPAs gumshoe standards. Government inspectors may periodically visit farms and conduct investigations to ensure compliance. Violation of government regulations may result in steep fines, loss of license and even jail sentences.As an example the EPA regulatory approach, consider B.t. corn. The EPA has not established limits on residue levels in B. t corn because the B. t. in the corn is not sprayed as a chemical pesticide but is a gene that is integrated into the genetic material of the corn itself. Growers must have a license from the EPA for B. t corn, and the EPA has issued a letter for the 2000 growing season requiring farmers to plant 20% unmodified corn, and up to 50% unmodified corn in regions where cotton is also cultivated41.This planting strategy may help prevent insects from developing resistance to the B.t. pesticides as well as provide a refuge for non-target insects such as Monarch butterflies. The USDA has many internal divisions that share responsibility for assessing GM foods. Among these divisions are APHIS, the Animal Health and Plant Inspection Service, which conducts field tests and issues permits to grow GM crops, the Agricultural Research Service which performs in-house GM food research, and the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service which oversees the USDA risk assessment program.The USDA is concerned with potential hazards of the plant itself. Does it ha rbor insect pests? Is it a noxious weed? Will it cause harm to indigenous species if it escapes from farmers fields? The USDA has the power to impose quarantines on problem regions to prevent movement of suspected plants, restrict import or export of suspected plants, and can even destroy plants cultivated in violation of USDA regulations. Many GM plants do not require USDA permits from APHIS.A GM plant does not require a permit if it meets these 6 criteria 1) the plant is not a noxious weed 2) the genetic material introduced into the GM plant is stably integrated into the plants own genome 3) the feed of the introduced gene is known and does not cause plant disease 4) the GM plant is not toxic to non-target organisms 5) the introduced gene will not cause the creation of new plant viruses and 6) the GM plant cannot contain genetic material from animal or human pathogens (see http//www. aphis. usda.gov80/bbep/bp/7cfr340 ).The current FDA policy was developed in 1992 (Federal Registe r Docket No. 92N-0139) and states that agri-biotech companies may voluntarily ask the FDA for a referation. Companies working to create new GM foods are not required to consult the FDA, nor are they required to follow the FDAs recommendations after the consultation. Consumer interest groups wish this process to be mandatory, so that all GM food products, whole foods or otherwise, must be approved by the FDA before being released for commercialization.The FDA counters that the agency currently does not have the time, money, or resources to carry out exhaustive health and safety studies of every proposed GM food product. Moreover, the FDA policy as it exists today does not allow for this type of intervention. How are GM foods labeled? Labeling of GM foods and food products is also a contentious issue. On the whole, agribusiness industries believe that labeling should be voluntary and influenced by the demands of the free market.If consumers show preference for labeled foods over non- labeled foods, then manufacture will have the incentive to regulate itself or risk alienating the customer. Consumer interest groups, on the other hand, are demanding mandatory labeling. People have the unspoilt to know what they are eating, argue the interest groups, and historically industry has proven itself to be unreliable at self-compliance with exist safety regulations.The FDAs current position on food labeling is governed by the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act which is only concerned with food additives, not whole foods or food products that are considered GRAS generally recognize as safe. The FDA contends that GM foods are substantially equivalent to non-GM foods, and therefore not subject to more stringent labeling. If all GM foods and food products are to be labeled, Congress must enact sweeping changes in the existing food labeling policy. There are many questions that must be answered if labeling of GM foods becomes mandatory.First, are consumers unforced to absorb th e cost of such an initiative? If the food production industry is required to label GM foods, factories will need to construct two discipline processing streams and monitor the production lines accordingly. Farmers must be able to keep GM crops and non-GM crops from mixing during planting, harvesting and shipping. It is almost assured that industry will pass along these additional costs to consumers in the form of higher prices. Secondly, what are the satisfactory limits of GM contamination in non-GM products?The EC has determined that 1% is an acceptable limit of cross-contamination, yet many consumer interest groups argue that only 0% is acceptable. Some companies such as Gerber baby foods42 and Frito-Lay43 have pledged to avoid use of GM foods in any of their products. But who is going to monitor these companies for compliance and what is the penalty if they fail? Once again, the FDA does not have the resources to carry out testing to ensure compliance. What is the level of detec tability of GM food cross-contamination?Scientists agree that current technology is unable to detect minute quantities of contamination, so ensuring 0% contamination using existing methodologies is not guaranteed. Yet researchers disagree on what level of contamination really is detectable, especially in highly processed food products such as vegetable oils or breakfast cereals where the vegetables used to make these products have been pooled from many different sources. A 1% threshold may already be below current levels of detectability. Finally, who is to be responsible for educating the public about GM food labels and how costly will that education be?Food labels must be designed to clearly convey accurate information about the product in simple language that everyone can understand. This may be the greatest challenge faced be a new food labeling policy how to educate and inform the public without damaging the public trust and causing alarm or fear of GM food products. In Januar y 2000, an international trade agreement for labeling GM foods was established44, 45. More than 130 countries, including the US, the worlds largest producer of GM foods, signed the agreement.The policy states that exporters must be required to label all GM foods and that importing countries have the right to judge for themselves the potential risks and reject GM foods, if they so choose. This new agreement may rachis the U. S. government to resolve the domestic food labeling dilemma more rapidly. Conclusion Genetically-modified foods have the potential to solve many of the worlds hunger and malnutrition problems, and to help protect and follow the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon chemical pesticides and herbicides.Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety testing, regulation, international policy and food labeling. Many people feel that genetic engineering is the inevitable wave of the future and that we cannot afford to ignore a technology that has such enormous potential benefits. However, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended harm to human health and the environment as a result of our enthusiasm for this powerful technology.

Mental and Behavioral Health Services Essay Example for Free

cordial and behavioral Health serve EssayWhile the future of Mental and Behavioral Health Services continue to strive through many striving goals to develop continuous practices, treatments, evaluations, policies, and look for, advancements atomic number 18 taking place to better the future of this platform and its outreach to the people. Mental disorders ar common in the unify States and internationally. An estimated 26.2 percent of Ameri outho accustoms ages 18 and of age(p) about virtuosoness in four adults suffer from a diagnosable psychical disorder in a given year.1 When applied to the 2004 U.S. Census residential population estimate for ages 18 and older, this figure translated to 57.7 million people.2 Even though noetic disorders are common in the population, the main load of illness is concentrated in a much smaller proportion about 6 percent, or 1 in 17 who are suffering from a serious mental illness.1 In addition, mental disorders are the leading ca map o f deterioration in the U.S. and Canada.3 some people suffer from more than one mental disorder at a given time. Roughly, 45 percent of those with any mental disorder meet the criteria for being strongly related to having 2 or more disorders.1 Awareness of having a disorder is very uncommon in the U.S. delimit FUTURE PROBLEMSBehavioral wellness is a state of mental/emotional being and/or choices and actions that affect wellness. Substance abuse and misuse are one set of behavioral wellness problems. Others include, but are not limited to, serious psychological distress, suicide, and mental illness (4. SAMHSA, 2011). Many of these problems are far-reaching and take a toll on individuals, their families and communities, and the broader society. Research allows us to get a better picture of what the future looks like and what people need to be continuing to do and improve on. By looking over research, statistics predict that by 2020, mental and substance use disorders will exceed all physical ailments as a major cause of disability worldwide.The annual total estimated societal cost of substance abuse in the United States is $510.8 billion, with an estimated 23.5 million Americans aged 12 and older needing treatment for substance use. Along with that, every year almost 5,000 people under the age of 21 die as a result of pocket-sized drinking and more than 34,000 Americans die every year as a result of suicide, almost one every 15 minutes. Also, Half of all life-time cases of mental and substance use disorders begin by age 14 and three-fourths by age 24in 2008, an estimated 9.8 million adults in the U.S. had a serious mental illness.The health and wellness of individuals in America are jeopardized and the unnecessary costs to society flow across Americas communities, schools, businesses, prisons jails, and health alimony delivery systems. Many plans and services are working together to minimize the impact of substance abuse and mental illnesses on America s communities.Many practitioners feature a very deep insureing approach to behavioral health and perceive streak as part of an overall continuum of care. The Behavioral Health Continuum of Care sit around helps us recognize that there are multiple opportunities for addressing behavioral health problems and disorders based on the Mental Health Intervention Spectrum, first introduced in a 1994 Institute of Medicine report, the model includes these components ( It is important to keep in mind that interjections do not always fit neatly into one category or an new(prenominal))* Promotion These strategies are designed to create environments and conditions that support behavioral health and the ability of individuals to withstand challenges. Promotion strategies also reinforce the entire continuum of behavioral health services. * measure Delivered prior to the onset of a disorder, these interventions are intended to prevent or reduce the bump of developing a behavioral health proble m, much(prenominal) as underage alcoholic beverage use, prescription drug misuse and abuse, and illicit drug use. * Treatment These services are for people diagnosed with a substance use or other behavioral health disorder. * Maintenance These services support individuals compliance with long-term treatment and aftercare.Two strategies for promoting the more important and most efficient openings in having access to mental and behavioral health services include providing education to reach the open, and the prevention and early intervention matters intertwining with the Continuum model components of treatment and maintenance. 7 The New Freedom Commission Report and surgeon Generals Report both emphasized the importance of changing public attitudes to eliminate the grunge associated with mental illness. Advocates for the mentally ill identify stigma and discrimination as major impediments to treatment.Stigma prevents individuals from acknowledging these conditions and erodes publ ic confidence that mental disorders are treatable. A plurality of Americans believe that mental illnesses are just like any other illness however, 25 percent of survey respondents would not welcome into their neighborhoods facilities that treat or house people with mental illnesses, suggesting that some level of lingering stigma persists.8 Sixty-one percent of Americans think that people with schizophrenia are likely to be dangerous to others9 despite research suggesting that these individuals are rarely violent.10With that being said, the media plays a large role in shaping how the youth think and behave from many of the messages kids receive from television, music, magazines, billboards, and the Internet use. However, the media can be used to encourage positive behaviors as well. Four evidence based communication and education prevention approaches are through public education, social merchandising, media advocacy, and media literacy that can be used to influence friendship norm s, increase public sensation, and attract community support for a modification of prevention issues (SAMHSA). Public education is usually the most common strategy and is an effective way to show support to the development and success of programs and increase awareness about new or existing laws, publicizing a community based program, and reinforce instruction taught in schools or community based organizations. finished social marketing, practitioners use advertising philosophies to change social norms and promote healthy behaviors. Social marketing campaigns do more than just provide information and tries to impel people to adopt a new behavior by showing them a benefit they will receive in return.11 Social marketing campaigns are being used in a kind of social services and public health settings. Media advocacy involves shaping the way social issues are discussed in the media to build support for changes in public polity. By working directly with local newspapers, television, and radio to change both the amount of coverage the media provide and the case of that coverage, media advocates hope to influence the way people talk and think about a social or public policy12. Media literacy is a newer communications strategy aimed at teaching young people critical-viewing skills. Media literacy programs teach kids how to analyze and understand the media messages they encounter so they can better understand what theyre really being asked to do and think.Inferences about a program potentiality relies on three things (1) measures of key constructs, such as venture and protective factors or processes, symptoms, disorders, or other outcomes, and program implementation, fidelity, or participation (2) a study design that determines which participants are being examined, how and when they will be assessed, and what interventions they will receive and (3) statistical analyses that model how those given an intervention differ on outcomes compared with those in a compar ison condition 19In the past, practitioners and researchers saw substance abuse prevention different from the prevention of other behavioral health problems. But evidence indicates that the populations are significantly affected by these overlapping problems as well as factors that contribute to these problems. Therefore, improvements in one area usually have direct impacts on the other.According to the Substance Abuse and National Health Services Administration, not all people or populations are at the same risk of developing behavioral health problems. Many young people have more than one behavioral disorder. These disorders can interact and contribute to the presence of other disorders. Besides extensive research documenting strong relations between multiple problems, its not always swooning what leads to what. Mental and physical health is also connected. Good mental health often contributes to good physical health. In the same way, the presence of mental health disorders, incl uding substance abuse and dependence, is often associated with physical health disorders as well (OConnell, 2009).One major advancement that has been recently made is from The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, adding a new search feature to its National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) Web site. The feature allows users to identify NREPP interventions that have been evaluated in comparative effectiveness research studies.Both the Obama Administration and the U.S. Congress have championed additional investments in comparative effectiveness research to enhance public understanding about which healthcare interventions are most effective in different circumstances and with different patients. The new NREPP feature can provide added information for States and communities seeking to determine which mental health and substance abuse prevention and treatment interventions may best address their needs.The Surgeon Generals notes that effective interventions help people to understand that mental disorders are not character flaws but are legitimate illnesses that respond to specific treatments, just as other health conditions respond to medical examination interventions. (7) The two major influences that are ranked upon are risk and protective factors. According to SAMHSAs levels of risk and interventions, some risk factors are causal others act as proxies, or markers of an underlying problem. Some risk and protective factors, such as gender and ethnicity, are fixed, meaning they dont change over time. Other risk and protective factors are considered variable these can change over time. Variable risk factors include income level, peer group, and employment status. Many factors influence a someones likeliness to develop a substance abuse or related behavioral health problem. Effective prevention focuses on reducing those risk factors, and strengthening those protective factors, that are most closely related to the proble m being addressed.Taken into consideration that preventive interventions are most effective when they are appropriately matched to their target populations level of risk, The Institute of Medicine defines three broad types of prevention interventions, universal, selective, and indicated. Universal preventive interventions take the broadest approach, targeting the general public or a substantial population that has not been identified on the basis of individual risk (OConnell, 2009). Universal prevention interventions might target schools, whole communities, or workplaces.Selective preventive interventions target individuals or a population sub-group whose risk of developing mental disorders or substance abuse disorders is significantly higher than total, prior to the diagnosis of a disorder (5. OConnell, 2009). Selective interventions target biological, psychological, or social risk factors that are more prominent among high-risk groups than among the wider population. Indicated p reventive interventions target high-risk individuals who are identified as having minimal but detectable signs or symptoms foreshadowing mental, emotional, or behavioral disorder prior to the diagnosis of a disorder (6. IOM, 2009). Interventions focus on the immediate risk and protective factors present in the environments surrounding individuals.A more harsher or serious way of plan of attack prevention is through policy adoption and enforcement. Policy can be broadly defined as standards for behavior that are formalized to some period (that is, written) and embodied in rules, regulations, and procedures.13 In order to work, these standards must reflect the accepted norms and intentions of a particular community. There are six major types of policy SAMHSA uses to prevent alcohol and other drug use through economic policies, restrictions on access and availability, restrictions on location and density, deterrence, restricting use, and limiting the marketing of alcohol products.Pol icy can be an effective prevention strategyas long as the laws and regulations you put in place are consistent with community norms and beliefs about the rightness or wrongness of the behavior you want to legislate14. The key to effective enforcement is visibility People need to see that substance use prevention is a community priority and that violations of related laws and regulations will not be tolerated. 6 Strategies that we use today for Enforcement are through surveillance, community policing, having incentives, and penalties, fines, and detentions.There have been many areas of progress in preventive intervention research since the 1994 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders Frontiers for Preventive Intervention Research. Experimental research has greatly improved mainly due to the advances in the methodological approaches applied to intervention research. For a range of outcomes, while the different types of intervention research has increased , so has the number of studies providing economic analyses in the costs and benefits of these interventions.As the 2001 U.S. Surgeon Generals report on childrens mental health indicated, there is a current need for improved and expanded mental health services for children and adolescents (15). There is a greater need for greater access to a variety of mental health services for children including both medical specialty for emotional or behavioral difficulties and treatments other than medication. Recent research studies have documented the increased use of psychotropic medications (16).Less is known, though, about the use of nonmedication treatments for the emotional and behavioral difficulties of U.S. children. These treatments may include community-based services such as behavioral and family therapy provided by mental health professionals in clinic and office settings and school-based services such as assessments of mental health problems, individual counseling, and crisis inter vention services for students (17,18). With the information collected by the mental health service questions in the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), it will be possible to monitor future trends in the use of both medication and other treatments for the emotional and behavioral difficulties of children.Recommended changes by the Surgeon General include improve geographic access integrate mental health and primary care ensure language access coordinate and integrate mental health services for high-need populations. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001)1. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Walters EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replica (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry, 2005 Jun62(6)617-27.2. U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates by Demographic Characteristics.Table 2 Annual Estimates of the Population by Selected Age Groups and Sex for the United States April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2 004 (NC-EST2004-02) Source Population Division, U.S. Census Bureau Release Date June 9, 2005. http//www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/3. The World Health Organization. The global burden of disease 2004 update, Table A2 Burden of disease in DALYs by cause, sex and income group in WHO regions, estimates for 2004. Geneva, Switzerland WHO, 2008. http//www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_AnnexA.pdf.4. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2011). Leading change A plan for SAMHSAs roles and actions 2011-2014. Rockville, MD SAMHSA.5. OConnell, M. E., Boat, T., Warner, K. E. (Eds.). (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people Progress and possibilities. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Washington, D.C. The National Academies Press.6. Compton, M. T. (2009). Clinical Manual of legal profession in Mental Health (1st ed.). American psychiatrical Publishing , Inc.7.. U.S. DHHS. 1999. Mental Health A Report of the Surgeon General. 8. Pescosolido, B. et al. 2000.Americans Views of Mental Health and Illness at the atomic number 6s End Continuity and Change. Public Report on the MacArthur Mental Health Module, 1996 General Social Survey. Bloomington, Indiana.9. Steadman, H.J. et al. 1998.Violence by People Discharged from Acute Psychiatric Inpatient Facilities and by Others in the Same Neighborhoods. Archives of General Psychiatry 55 (5) 393401.10. Borinstein,A.B. 1992. Public Attitudes Toward Persons with Mental Illness. Health Affairs 11 (3) 18696.11. Kotler, P. and Roberto, E. (1989). Social marketing Strategies for changing pubic behavior. New York Free Press.12. Wallack, L., Dorfman, L., Jernigan, D., and Themba, M. (1993). Media advocacy and public health Power for prevention. Newbury Park, CA Sage Publications.13. Bruner, C. and Chavez, M. (1996). Getting to the grassroots Neighborhood organizing and mobilization. Des Moines, IA NC SI Clearinghouse. CSAP confederation Partnerships (unpublished document).14. Bruner, C. (1991). Thinking collaboratively Ten questions and answers to help policy makers improve childrens services. Washington, DC Education and Human Services Consortium15. U.S. Public Health Service. Report of the Surgeon Generals Conference on Childrens Mental Health A National Action Agenda. Washington, DC Department of Health and Human Services. 2000. 16. Martin A, Leslie D. Trends in psychotropic medication costs for children and adolescents, 19972000. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1579971004. 2003. 17. Steele RG, Roberts MC (Eds.). Handbook of mental health services for children, adolescents, and families. New York Springer, 2005.18. Foster S, Rollefson M, Doksum T, Noonan D, Robinson G, Teich J. School Mental Health Services in the United States, 20022003. DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 054068. Rockville, MD Center for Mental Health Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 200519. Committee on the Prevention of Mental Disorders and Substance Abuse Among Children, Youth and new(a) Adults Research Advances and Promising Interventions, Institute of Medicine, National Research Council. 10 Advances in Prevention Methodology. Preventing Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Disorders Among Young People Progress and Possibilities. Washington, DC The National Academies Press, 2009.

Introduction To Rdbms Oodbms And Ordbms Information Technology Essay

Introduction To Rdbms Oodbms And Ordbms Information Technology EssayThe relational model is based on the structure of a selective disciplinebase. A infobase is simply a collection of ace or more(prenominal) relations or tables with columns and rows. The use of set theory allows for info to be structured in a series of tables that has both columns and rows. Each column corresponds to an evaluate of that relation, while all(prenominal) row corresponds to a record that contains entropy values for an entity.The main elements of R infobase counsel system argon based on Ted Codds 13 rules for arelational system, the concept of relational integrity, and normalization. The three entires of a relational database atomic number 18 that all teaching essential be held in the form of a table, where all data argon described using data values. The second fundamental is that each value found in the table columns does not repeat. The final fundamental is the use of Standard Query Languag e (SQL).Benefits of RDBMS be that the system is unreserved, flexible, and productive. Becausethe tables be simple, data is easier to understand and communicate with another(prenominal)s. RDBMS are flexible because users do not have to use pre desexualized keys to input education. Also,RDBMS are more productive because SQL is easier to learn. This allows users to spend more timeinputting instead of learning. More importantly, RDBMSs biggestadvantage is the ease with which users flockcreate and access data and extend it if needed. After the original database is created, late data categories can be added without the existing activity being changed.There are confinements to the relational database direction system. First, relational databases do not have enough storage compass to handle data much(prenominal) as images, digital and audio/video. The system was originally created to handle the integration of media, traditional fielded data, and templates. Another limitation of the relational database is its insufficiency to operate with languages outside of SQL. After its original developing, languages such as C++ and JavaScript were formed. However, relational databases do not work efficiently with these languages. A third limitation is the requirement that information must be in tables where relationships between entities are fructifyd by values.Today, the relational model is the dominant data model as well as the foundation for the leading DBMS products, which include IBMs DB2 family, Informix, Oracle, Sybase, Microsofts Access and SQLServer, as well as FoxBase and Paradox. RDBMS represent close to a multibillion-dollar industry alone.To beset the limitations of RDBMS and meet the challenge of the increasing rise of the Internet and the vane, programmers developed physical object-oriented databases in the 1980s. The main objective of target-Oriented Database Management dodges, comm nevertheless known as OODBMS, is to provide consistent, data i ndependent, secure, controlled and extensible data management services to support the object-oriented model. They were created tohandle big and obscure data that relational databases could not.There are important characteristics involved with object-oriented databases. The most important characteristic is the joining of object-oriented scheduling with database technology, which provides an integrated application learning system. Object-oriented computer programming results in 4 main characteristicsinheritances, data encapsulation, object identity, and polymorphism. Inheritance allows one to develop solutions to knotty problems incrementally by defining new objects in terms of antecedently correctd objects.Data encapsulation or simply encapsulation allows the hiding of the internal show of the objects. Encapsulated objects are those objects that can only be assessed by their methods instead of their internal states. There are three founts of encapsulated objects users and deve lopers should recognize. The first is full encapsulation, in which all the operations on objects are done through message sending and method execution. The second is indite encapsulation, which is where the internal state of the object is visible only for interpret operations. The third is partial encapsulation, which involves allowing direct access for reading and writing for only a part of the internal state.Object identity allows objects of the database to be independent of each other. Polymorphism and dynamic binding allow one to define operations for one object and then to share the specification of the operation with other objects. This allows users and/or programmers to compose objects to provide solutions without having to write code that is specific to each object.The language important to OODBMS is data definition and manipulation language (DDML). The use of this language allows dogged data to be created, updated, deleted, or retrieved. An OODBMS needs a computational v ersus a relational language because it can be used to avoid impedance mismatch. DDML allows users to define a database, including creating, altering, and dropping tables and establishing constraints. DDMLs are used to maintain and query a database, including updating, inserting, modifying, and querying data.The OODBMS has many advantages and benefits. First, object-oriented is a more natural way of thinking. Second, the defined operations of these character references of systems are not dependent on the particular database application running at a given moment. Third, the data references of object-oriented databases can be extended to support complex data such as images, digital and audio/video, along with other multi-media operations. Different benefits of OODBMS are its reusability, stability, and reliability. Another benefit of OODBMS is that relationships are represented explicitly, often sustenance both navigational and associative access to information. This translates to i mprovement in data access performance versus the relational model.Another important benefit is that users are allowed to define their own methods of access to data and how it will be represented or manipulated. The most significant benefit of the OODBMS is that these databases have extended into areas not known by the RDBMS. Medicine, multimedia, and high-energy physics are just a few of the new industries relying on object-oriented databases.As with the relational database method, object-oriented databases also has disadvantages or limitations. One disadvantage of OODBMS is that it lacks a common data model. There is also no current standard, since it is still considered to be in the development stages.Object-oriented database technology is a marriage of object-oriented programming and database technologies. omen 1 illustrates how these programming and database concepts have come together to provide what we now call object-oriented databases.Introduction to RDBMS OODBMS and ORDBMS Perhaps the most significant characteristic of object-oriented database technology is that it combines object-oriented programming with database technology to provide an integrated application development system. There are many advantages to including the definition of operations with the definition of data. First, the defined operations apply ubiquitously and are not dependent on the particular database application running at the moment. Second, the data types can be extended to support complex data such as multi-media by defining new object classes that have operations to support the new kinds of information.Other strengths of object-oriented modeling are well known. For example, inheritance allows one to develop solutions to complex problems incrementally by defining new objects in terms of previously defined objects. Polymorphism and dynamic binding allow one to define operations for one object and then to share the specification of the operation with other objects. These object s can further extend this operation to provide behaviors that are preposterous to those objects. Dynamic binding determines at runtime which of these operations is actually executed, depending on the class of the object requested to perform the operation. Polymorphism and dynamic binding are in good order object-oriented features that allow one to compose objects to provide solutions without having to write code that is specific to each object. All of these capabilities come together synergistically to provide significant productivity advantages to database application developers.A significant difference between object-oriented databases and relational databases is that object-oriented databases represent relationships explicitly, supporting both navigational and associative access to information. As the complexity of interrelationships between information within the database increases, so do theadvantages of representing relationships explicitly. Another benefit of using explici t relationships is the improvement in data access performance over relational value-based relationships.A unique characteristic of objects is that they have an identity that is independent of the state of the object. For example, if one has a car object and we remodel the car and change its appearance, the engine, the transmission, and the tires so that it looks completely different, it would still be recognized as the same object we had originally. Within an object-oriented database, one can always ask the question, is this the same object I had previously?, assuming one remembers the objects identity. Object-identity allows objects to be related as well as shared within a distributed computing network.All of these advantages point to the application of object-oriented databases to information management problems that are characterized by the need to managea large number of different data types,a large number of relationships between the objects, andobjects with complex behaviors. Application areas where this kind of complexity exists includes engineering, manufacturing, simulations, office automation and large information systems.Object- comparative database (ORDBMS) is the third type of database common today. ORDBMS are systems that attempt to extend relational database systems with the functionality necessity to support a broader class of applications and, in many ways, provide a bridge between the relational and object-oriented paradigms.ORDBMS was created to handle new types of data such as audio, video, and image files that relational databases were not equipped to handle. In addition, its development was the result of increased usage of object-oriented programming languages, and a large mismatch between these and the DBMS software.One advantage of ORDBMS is that it allows organizations to continue using their existing systems, without having to make major(ip) changes. A second advantage is that it allows users and programmers to start using object-ori ented systems in parallel.There are challenges in implementing an ORDBMS. The first is storage and access methods. The second is query processing, and the third is query optimization.Since the development of RDBMS, OODBMS, and ORDBMS, many vendors have extended their systems with the ability to store new data types such as images and texts, and with the ability to ask more complex queries.One rising technique is enterprise imaginativeness planning and management resource planning, which add another layer of application-oriented features on top of a DBMS. Included applications come fromBaan, Oracle, SAP, and Siebel. These programs each identify a set of common tasks encountered by a large number of organizations and provide a general application layer to carry out these tasks.More importantly, DBMS have advanced into the Internet and Web Age.Stored data is widely being accessed through a Web browser. Today, queries are being generated through Web-accessible forms and answers are bei ng formatted using a mark-up language such as HTML. In addition, many vendors and distributors are adding features to their DBMS aimed at making it better equipped for Internet usage.In summary, relational and object-oriented database systems each have indisputable strengths as well as certain weaknesses. In general, the weakness of one type of system tends to be strength of the other..Object Relational Database ManagementSystem(ORDBMS) is a DBMS or Database Management System akin to a relational database, but with an object oriented database model that allowscustom web developmentprofessionals to combine the database with custom data types. It bridges the gap between relational databases and Object-Oriented Database Management System (OODBMS).Traditional RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) focused on the efficient management from a limited set of data-types. Object relational DBMS allowsweb sites developmentexperts to combine their own data types and methods.The limitati ons of RDBMS have led to the introduction of object-relational database management systems ORDBMS systems occurred in the early 1990s out of research. One of the most notable research projects, the Postgres introduced two products Illustra and Postgre SQL. The mid-1990s saw many commercial products appearing. These included Omniscience, UniSQL and Illustra 2.Objectives of Object Relational DatabasesTo bridge the gap between object-relational procedure and conceptual data modeling techniques.To bridge the gap between object oriented modeling techniques (used in programming languages like C++, C andJava) and relational databases.Advantages of ORDBMSObject Relational Database Management Systems ensures large storage capacity, which is an important part in web baseddevelopmentThe access speed is fairly quick.ORDBMSs have massive scalability.ORDBMSs boast excellent manipulation power of object databases.Supports object functionality by adding separate APIs and master of ceremoniessubsys temsRedesigns the database engine completelySupports rich data types by adding a new object-oriented layer.Apart from these benefits, an object relational database management system has some drawbacks. One of the major disadvantages is its incapability for high-speed internet applications. However, ORDBMSs are designed to manage large amounts of information, an important aspect in thedevelopment of website. The IDC opines that the ORDBMS market has the potential to surpass the sizing of ODBMS in the next couple of years in web based development.Read morehttp//www.articlesbase.com/programming-articles/ordbms-or-objectrelational-database-management-system-objectives-and-advantages821908.htmlixzz1CUlv7OAHUnder Creative Commons LicenseAttribution.An object relational database is also called an object relational database management system (ORDBMS). This system simply puts an object oriented front end on a relational database (RDBMS). When applications interface to this type of database, it will normally interface as though the data is stored as objects. However the system will convert the object information into data tables with rows and colums and handle the data the same as a relational database. Likewise, when the data is retrieved, it must be reassembled from simple data into complex objects.Performance ConstraintsBecause the ORDBMS converts data between an object oriented format and RDBMS format, speed performance of the database is degraded substantially. This is due to the additional conversion work the database must do.ORDBMS BenefitsThe main benefit to this type of database lies in the fact that the software to convert the object data between a RDBMS format and object database format is provided. Therefore it is not necessary for programmers to write code to convert between the two formats and database access is easy from an object oriented computer language.To define Object-Relational Database Management System (ORDBMS) it is enough to take simple equatio n ORDBMS = ODBMS + RDBMS = (O + R) * DB * MS. On a logical level, an ORDBMS is the MS process methods applied for DB data structure, which is complied with O object and R relational concepts.The R relational concept in the context of DBMS is based on the relations in the form of two-dimensional tables of rows and columns. Transformation of queries into relational algebra is the main hinderance that affiliates a database with the relational model. It is prejudice to think that SQL2 language is a private and necessary criterion of RDBMS just as to think that Java is a single language of OO programming. Noteworthy feature of RDBMS is the possibility to process a large mass of the uniform n-element tuples (rows or records) quickly.All necessary for object representation is uncommitted in the object DBMS (ODBMS). Often the ODBMS is equated to the OODBMS, namely DBMS integrated with an Object-Oriented (OO) programming language like C++ and Java. The characteristic properties of ODBMS a re 1)complex data, 2)type inheritance, and 3)object behavior. These features will be considered below regarding the ORDBMS.Complex data creation in most SQL ORDBMSs is based on preliminary schema definition via the user-defined type (UDT). The table remains a most clear form for representation of complex data in any ORDBMS.studentsidnamecoursefirst at lastst031JaneHunterEconomyPlanningst072RichardWhiteComputers in EngineeringThe name attribute (or field or column) consists of the first and last attributes. The value of the course attribute is a set of Economy and Planning elements. Such structure is able, for example, for the Informix SQL (http//www-3.ibm.com/software/data/informix/pubs/library/index.html).CREATE course of instruction TYPE Student ( id CHAR(5), name ROW (first VARCHAR(12), last VARCHAR(20)), course SET (VARCHAR(128) NOT NULL))CREATE TABLE students OF TYPE StudentINSERT INTO studentsVALUES ( st031, ROW(Jane, Hunter), SET(Economy, Planning))INSERT INTO studentsVALUES ( st072, ROW(Richard, White), SET(Computers in Engineering))Other SQL ORDBMS suggests other composite type constructors, for example VARRAY or ARRAY instead of the SET, and OBJECT instead of the ROW. Constructors of the simple built-in types, with limitations like CHAR(5), came from SQL2.Is it necessary to define schema onwards filling a database? Historically, the answer was canonical yes for two reasons. Firstly, the definition of database schema essentially helped to control the type of input data. Secondly, the data type limitation make possible the early DBMSs to organize data with maximal memory and processor efficiency. Nevertheless, development of database schema is a most laborious process. There are a lot of situations related with complex data when precise schema description is not necessary or unreasonably slows project development. Furthermore, both reasons for schema predefinition are no longer valid. Control of input data should be executed by supporting an input fo rm, (e.g., via JavaScript on the Web client side). With the hardware advances in modern database systems, the influence of data type limitation on performance is practically insignificant.An object-oriented database management system (OODBMS), sometimes shortened toODBMSforobject database management system), is a database management system (DBMS) that supports the modelling and creation of data asobjects. This includes some kind of support forclasses of objects and theinheritanceof class properties andmethods by subclasses and their objects. There is currently no widely agreed-upon standard for what constitutes an OODBMS, and OODBMS products are considered to be still in their infancy. In the meantime, the object-relational database management system (ORDBMS), the idea that object-oriented database concepts can be superimposed on relational databases, is more commonly encountered in available products. An object-oriented database interface standard is being developed by an industry group, the Object Data Management Group (ODMG). The Object Management Group (OMG) has already standardized an object-oriented data brokering interface between systems in a network.In their influential paper,The Object-Oriented Database Manifesto, Malcolm Atkinson and others define an OODBMS as followsAn object-oriented database system must satisfy two criteria it should be a DBMS, and it should be an object-oriented system, i.e., to the extent possible, it should be consistent with the current crop of object-oriented programming languages. The first criterion translates into five features persistence, vicarious storage management, concurrency, recovery and an ad hoc query facility. The second one translates into eight features complex objects, object identity, encapsulation, types or classes, inheritance, overriding combined with late binding, extensibility and computational completeness...http//www.versant.com/en_US/products/oodbms.html/OODBMS (OBJECT DATABASE) ADVANTAGESvictimiza tion anOODBMS/ODBMS(object database management system, object-oriented data management system) for data storage brings powerful advantages to applications that use complex object models, have high concurrency requirements, and large data sets.It is difficult, time consuming, dearly-won in development, and expensive at run time, to map the objects into a relational database and performance can suffer. mountainsidesobject databasesolutions (ODBMS) are designed to handle the navigational access, seamless data distribution, and scalability often required by these applicationsVersant Object DatabaseOODBMS(Java,C++)FastObjects .NETOODBMS(.NET)Why VersantsOODBMSsolutions instead of traditional RDBMS?Where data handling requirements are simple and suitable to fit(p) row and column structures an RDBMS might be an appropriate solutiuon. However,for many applications, todays most challenging aspect is controlling the inherent complexity of the subject matter itself the complexity must be ta med. And tamed in a way that enables continual evolution of the application as the environment and needs change. For these applications, anOODBMSis the best answer multifactorial (INTER-) RELATIONSHIPSIf there are a lot of many-to-many relationships, tree structures or network (graph) structures then VersantsOODBMSsolutions will handle those relationships much faster than a relational database. multiform DATAFor many applications, the most challenging aspect is controlling the inherent complexity of the subject matter itself the complexity must be tamed. For these applications, a VersantOODBMSis the best answer. Architectures that mix technical foul needs such as persistence (and SQL) with the domain model are an invitation to disaster. VersantsOODBMSsolutions let you develop using objects that need only contain the domain behaviour, expiration you from persistence concerns.NO MAPPING LAYERIt is difficult, time consuming, expensive in development, and expensive at run time, to map the objects into a relational database and performance can suffer. VersantsOODBMSsolutions store objects as objects yes, its as easy as 1, 2, 3. Versants object database solutions are designed to store many-to-many, tree and network relationships as named bi-directional associations without having the need for JOIN tables. Hence, Versants object database solutions save programming time, and objects can be stored and retrieved faster. Modern O/R mapping tools may simplify many mapping problems, however they dont provide seamless data distribution or the performance of VersantsOODBMSsolutions.FAST AND EASY DEVELOPEMENT, ABILITY TO COPE WITH CONTINOUS EVOLUTIONThe complexity of telecommunications infrastructure, transportation networks, simulations, pecuniary instruments and other domains must be tamed. And tamed in a way that enables continual evolution of the application as the environment and needs change. Architectures that mix technical needs such as persistence (and SQL) with the domain model are an invitation to disaster. VersantsOODBMSsolutions let you develop using objects that need only contain the domain behaviour, freeing you from persistence concerns.

Procurement And Contract Advice For Clients Construction Essay

Procurement And Contract Advice For Clients Construction EssayThis section of the theme insinuates both tralatitious and physique and build forms of procurement to aid leaf nodes in chthonianstanding and selecting the appropriate method.Traditional ProcurementThe most well known and widely accepted form of procurement in the aspect industry. Traditional procurement caters for all types of client from individuals constructing a see for the first clipping too spacious complex projects where the function of the building is paramount.Traditional OrganisationClient / EmployerContractorSub diluteorsEmployers AgentQuantity SurveyorArchitectCivil / structural Engineer some other public figureerscontractual LinkThe traditional organisation diagram highlights how contractual links are formed within traditional procurement. As the client you are contractually bound to the origination team. This is important and should be considered seriously as the contractor is at no direct cont ractual link to the architect.The primary procurement method in traditional procurement is the two stages complaisant. Initially the client must produce a brief which outlines what your requirements. This must include relevant figures such as budget and succession constraints. Now a team of consultants needs to be ap spirit leveled, this will comprise primarily of an architect who will guide you through the design and construction processes. Other members will need to be appointed based on the scope of the project. These include a amount of money, structural engineer and a clients representative on large projects.(Stage one) Design and tender documents bum now be produced. A select number of contractors will be invited to tender on the partially completed tender documents. This will include a build up of the hurt of the project via a document called the bill of quantities.(Stage Two) A contractor is now selected based upon the price and having the relevant resources required t o complete the project. The contractor now has involvement with the design team to negotiate a finalised price for completing the construction works. Also he can seduce involvement in finalising the design.This form of procurement is considered low guess as the risks to overspending, delays and failures in the design are reduced. This can only be achieved however, if the design has been thoroughly produced by the architect and completion date targets specified are unreasonable.Design and institute procurementThis procurement method differs from traditional procurement as the contractor is largely responsible for the design work. This relieves some of the contractual pressure on the client. With the contractor being involved in the project from the design stage it allows their expertise to be incorporated into the design phases. One of the largest advantages to design and build is the reduced time scale that projects can run to. Design instruction can be still being produced whil e construction work commences. This doesnt come without its risks however.Client / EmployerContractorSubcontractorsEmployers AgentQuantity SurveyorArchitectCivil / Structural EngineerOther DesignersDesign and ground OrganisationTendering for design and build projects is more costly than traditional projects therefore the number of contractors tendering is reduced. This is due to the time and resources it takes for a contractor to produce the relevant design and pricing information. Cash flow within a design and build project can be more substantial in the beginning than traditional as the contractor requires money for the design as well as construction. This is also due to larger risk being imposed on the progeny of an issue in the design being raised by the client as the contractor is the first point of fall into place. This will then cover the costs of having to transfer this information. This is not required in traditional forms of procurement as the client is in direct conta ct with the architect.Types of Contract(The information for types of contract has been cited from deciding on the appropriate JCT contract 2008 available from the CIS published by Sweet Maxwell limited)TraditionalLump make sense contracts The agreed sum of construction is agreed based on a design and specification. A bill of quantities is produced for the contractors to price the works.Measurement contracts The end price of the construction works is not agreed until the end of the construction project.Cost reimbursement contracts Price of labour, plant and materials is calculated at the end of the project. Overheads and profit is then added onto this.Design and BuildPackage deal or turnkey contract A package is selected usually from a set standard of specification from a contractor.Design and Build contracts This form of contract will cover the contractors obligations to the design and build of the project.JCTStandard building contract with quantitiesThis form of contract is suitable for the traditional procurement method. The client must appoint an architect, contract administrator and quantity surveyor to administer the work. Contractors will tender the works based on the drawings and a set of bill of quantities.Design and build contractStandard form of contract for design and build works. Contractor is principally responsible for the design and construction of the project.PartneringJCT contract also provides an outline for setting up a partnering agreement between select members of a construction project. Everyone throughout the supply chain is bound to the agreement to work collaboratively and to have everyone best interests in mind. This should be considered as a form of contract that Hotels R Us should look into in the future when they have sufficient convey in the industry.ICEThis form of contract is suitable for civil engineering works such as bridges, roads and dams. The project will be intentional by a team of engineers and qualified contrac tors will tender for the work. The engineer is the principal administrator acting on behalf of the client.NEC 3 pay and event clausesThe NEC 3 contract was derived from Ice form of contract. The principle goals of the NEC contract are to provide a contract that is flexible, simple and clear to understand. in that location are many different types of NEC contract which cover traditional and design and build types of procurement. This section is going to cover early warning procedures, compensation and event clauses.Early warning clauses can be found in section 16 of the NEC contract. These are basically a set of rules that the project manager and contractor must adhere to when they are aware of a cost or time issue on the project. It is there duty under contract to notify one and other and request an Early warning meeting which relevant members should be invited such as the client, architect or quantity surveyor. During these meeting the issue will be discussed and the relevant act ions that need to be taken should be appointed. The advantages to this system of traditional methods of the contractor submitting a formal bankers bill is that issues can be resolved in the most economically viable method, this offers clients more safety in terms of cash flow.Compensation events are cover in section 60 of the contract. These are claims made by the contractor requesting either more time or money for the project. The project manager can also notify the contractor if he is aware of such an issue. NEC3 outlines the methodology behind compensation events, the contract has eight weeks to notify being aware of a compensation event and must make a claim within this period.As a client entering into the construction industry for the first time it is often difficult to understand how and why construction projects can run over budget and cost more money. The compensation events detailed in the NEC3 contract try to justify how such events can occur.

Trinidad And Tobago By World War II History Essay

Trinidad And Tobago By cosmos War II History Essay existence War 2, also cognise as the Second humanness War was the largest and most violent armed conflict in history which lasted for much than six years from 1939 to 1945, which produced approximately 50 million deaths. This war tortuous the most countries compared to any separate war and introduced many weapons and ended with the first use of nuclear weapons. It began in Europe on folk 1st, 1939 when the Germans invaded Poland with show up any stiff declaration, while Britain and France as wholeies variationally declared war on Germany and the latter was aided by Italy and Japan. However in the early 1930s, the war began preferably with Japanese interventions in China. In Europe the war ended on May 8th 1945 with Germany surrendering and in Asia on September 2nd, 1945 when the Japan officially surrendered.The part of this paper is to critique the view that military personnel War II ushered in radical changes in Trinidad and Tobago, firstly I provided a brief history of World War II and how Trinidad became apart of it. Lastly I discussed the cordial, infrastructure, economic and cultural changes it brought in Trinidad and Tobago. The research method employed in this paper was a form of non-experimental research as secondary data was collected in order to evaluate the changes World War II to brought to Trinidad and Tobago. In carrying out this research, a major(ip) limitation was that information on the research topic was non easily available whatever(prenominal) on the internet and libraries and it is therefore recommended schools and national libraries encompass more resources on Trinidad and Tobagos history.History of World War IIOn September 1st, 1939 Adolf Hitler and his German Nazis invadedPoland and attacked from their battle ship. The Germans were equipped with a substantial and well-organized general and soldiers causation Poland to surrender. In turn the next mean solar day Britain a nd France formally declared war against Germany and swore their allegiance as a result of defending democracy. Germany was later on joined by Japan and Italy to suppress the rest of the world, they were known as the Axis powers. Against them were the allies the get together Kingdom, France and many others that came later. The get together Stated of the States remained neutral with the passage of the neutrality Act of 1937, making it unlawful for the United States to trade with combative groups. However on December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the American meanspirited of Pearl Harbor in the Hawaii islands thereby the Americans entered into war against the Axis.The United States of American was determined to restrain the Axis powers with their massive economic resources and in the end won the war for the assort and collapsed the Axis powers. The Germans surrendered to the United States of America and their allied forces and the war in Europe was over and a couple months after Japan surrendered after attacking Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In order for United Stated of America to defeat the Axis powers, they outsourced countries to set up small, Trinidad was on of them in which had a major impact on the sylvan socially, culturally, economically and racially. World War II today continues to receive much interest as it left many political, social and military implications throughout the World.Trinidad and World War IITrinidad played an important role in the Allied war effort, in doing so World War II had a meaning(a) impact on the social, economic, racial and cultural development of Trinidad. On September 2, 1940, nearly a year after the World War II began, British government, Prime Minister Winston Churchill agreed to allow the United States of America military to establish and operate meanspiriteds in several British Caribbean territories. On October, 10 1940, a memorandum was sent to the governor of Trinidad and Tobago by Admiral John W. Greenslade of th e United States of America stating his visit to Trinidad for the purpose of investigating the location and facilities to be leased to the United States of America for naval and air plates and army establishments. The memorandum included the request for location near shore, areas for defence, training, and storage of supplies, hospitalization, land fields, and fleet anchorage. The Governor of Trinidad and Tobago, Sir Hubert Young along with his advisors Mr. Grinnell and Mr. Beard questioned a minute of facilities requested by the United States and proposed an alternative site, the Caroni Swamp. The United Stated engineer, Commander Bragg, stated that the current state of the Caroni Swamp at the time was unfeasible for military intent and would take fifteen years to drain and construct to meet the requirement for the military use. In addition Governor Young was aware that the local population would resent the idea of using North western Peninsula and as a result cause friction, t ho the United States government were adamant on setting up their shews on Wallerfield / Sangre Grande and Chagaramas.The British Government and the United States of America agreed on a Bases for Destroyers Agreement in which the United States was granted British islands to establish their naval or air bases on ninety-nine year free leases on the Newfoundland, Eastern side of the Bahamas, grey coast of Jamaica, Western cost of St. Lucia, West coast of Trinidad, Antigua and British Guiana in exchange for fifty destroyers which was also referred to as the flush-deck destroyers or the four-pipers. In Trinidad the North West Peninsula including the Five Island in Chaguaramas (See Appendix A) and Waller field were leased to the United States for naval and air base, this resulted in the removal of North West Peninsula residents.Britains motive for entering into the bases for destroyers savvy was an attempt both to strengthen its forces and to enlist the United States in the defense of i ts colonial territories. British Prime Minister Churchill cautioned American President Franklin D. Roosevelt that if Britain was defeated, its colonial islands keep mum to America could become as threat to America if they became German territory. Therefore the United States of America was initially a neutral party during the first dickens years of the war and their aim for the deal was do non but to better the Allies chances against the Axis but also to ensure that no other European power gained a stronghold in the Americas.Trinidad was the assembly point for the vital oil tankers the governments political alliance with the United States did not directly station at the country at risk only the mental synthesis of the American bases had a remarkable socio-economic impact on the country. tally to Brereton, Trinidad played the following prodigious roles during the war in assisting the United States it was the convoy-assembly point transmitting tankers from the Caribbean oil p orts across the Atlantic to North Africa and Europe, secondly the Gulf of Paria was utilise by US carriers and airplanes for their net exercises before going to the Pacific Battleground via the Panama Canal. Thirdly planes for the Eighth Army in North Africa were ferried through Trinidad and lastly vessels and civilian planes from South America had to stop at Trinidad for clearance to proceed to North America and European destinations (Brereton, 1982).Economic ChangesThe American Base in Trinidad had a occur of compulsory and ostracise effects on the countrys economy, infrastructure, social and cultural aspects, to each one one will be discussed separately. Locals were thril take by the opportunities in which the American Base would bring, according to Neptune (1970) both Indo-Trinidadian cane cutters and Afro-Trinidadian domestic servants were ready take advantage of what they expected to be more remunerative U.S. employers. He made reference to Ralph De Boissiers Rum and Coc o dummy narration the rosiest illusions some the chances awaiting them. (Neptune, 1970). At the same time planters were disgruntled since they believed relieve oneselfers would abandon the state to work on the American base.To assist the planters, Governor Young consulted the American authorities to implement the prevailing wages policy in which they agreed to adhere to the local pay scale that preceded their stretch in the colony, Trinidad employers were pleased however workers were disappointed (Neptune, 1970). In May 1942, the Americans requested authorization from the Trinidad Governor to increase wages, stating it was necessary to acquire base labour. According to Neptune, some ignored the colonial system by paying unskilled and semiskilled labourers the rates of a skilled worker.There were a number of major positive effects of the American base in Trinidad. According to Neptune although the base did not offer high wagers as workers expected the Yankee in which locals refe rred the Americans as enticed the locals to work on the American base as the American boss were rewarding, they offered overtime and holiday bonus. The American base employed more that 15,000 workers in formal positions within six months of construction of the base, the number working informally from show-shine boys to portraits artist was incalculable. The number of employees go to 25,000 six months later including clerks, teachers and policeman. Neptune went on to say where trained teachers had a salary of $30 a month, they made between $80 and a $150 dollars per month clerking for Americans. In addition in 1940 only 5 officers left the service , where as in 1941 a total of 21 left and for the first two months of 1942 the figure had already reached 24 (Neptune, 1970). The construction of the American base created a large probability of employment for the locals According to Brereton, 1982 between 15 and 20 percent of the labor force were employed on the American base. The wages change magnitude thereby increased rural-urban migration causing a shortage of agricultural labor as sugar employment dropped from 30,000 in 1939 to 18,000 in 1943 (Brereton, 1982).World War II resulted in a slower trade around the world and thereby changed production in Trinidad and Tobago, agricultural exports diminish. According to the Library of sexual intercourse, 1987 during the 1950s, agricultures share of total output dropped from 17 to 12 percent Trinidad and Tobago was a crown colony and therefore it served as a market for British products. According to Horne (2003) a large number of foods was imported along with books, fabrics, footwear, equipment and tools. Furthermore the Americans occupied agricultural areas such(prenominal) as Valencia which provided fruits vegetables and carenage for fishing however German submarines invaded the waters during the war and ships were torpedoed causing a shortage in food. This led to a in the buff system of retailing fish and crops and the cost of living rose.On the contrary, the oil industry experienced a boom, according to the Library of Congress (1987), the real gross domestic product increased an average of 8.5 percent annually from 1951 to 1961 and growth averaged 10 percent annually from 1956 to 1961. The real per capita income increased 15 percent. Oil, construction, and manufacturing emerged as dominant industrial sectors. In 1956 a United States oil company, Texaco, entered Trinidad and Tobago and consolidated several holdings of other companies. Oil production jumped from under 60,000 barrels per day prior to 1950 to 80,000 barrels per day toward the end of the decade. In addition, the price of oil continued to rise, allowing for increased oil earnings and growing government tax incomes (Library of Congress, 1987).Prior to the Americans in Trinidad, more than 10,000 brusk women were employed in domestic work, by teenage years girls had already mastered cooking, cleaning, ironing, and laundering. Ac cording to Neptune domestic work accounted for 36% of the islands wages-earning females in the 1930s however these women endured terrible working conditions in which they worked from dawn till late night for $4 to $10 dollar. In the midst of American arrival where no prevailing wages policy, they offered higher rates than the British and thereby servants began deserting the British colonial employers. According to Neptune, the colonys housewives were in a frenzy causing social friction between Americans and understaffed Trinidadians. However it drove the administration to establish a vocational education committee to oversee the training of domestic workers to repair the dispute between servants and their employers. The American base also brought on a spending economy where there was a boost in the services such as hotels, bars and small businesses.The American base in Trinidad also brought on negative effects on the economy, according to Horne (2003) the government of Trinidad and Tobago incurred a number of expense during the stay of the American Base. The government had to maintain and upkeep the roads used freely by the American official vehicles stationed at the bases, because the agreement set free from license and registration fees. second the government had to maintain the airport and maintenance cost increased due to the damage to the runaways from heavy military planes. Thirdly the landing and parking fees of the aircraft were free, moreover Trinidad revenue suffer since the government lost 1 million dollars in revenue from excise duties through the delivery at each Base of 10 million gallons of gasoline, 1 million gallons of kerosene duty free( Horne, 2003).InfrastructureThe building of the American base launched extensive infrastructure projects for example construction of better roads, causing construction to more than double in over ten years. The American Navy Construction Brigade constructed road to Maracas Bay as compensation for the loss of North West Peninsula (Brereton, 1982) Manufacturings output, encouraged by generous fiscal incentives since 1950, also increased rapidly, although its share of gross domestic product rose from 11 to 13 percent. (Library of Congress, 1987).CultureThe American culture also impacted on Trinidad such as their dress mode in which locals admired and adopted. According to Harvey Neptune in November 1939, a small number of Port of Spain office workers issued a plea for cooler dressing their request was ignored until the arrival of the Americans. On September 16 1941, a policy was created declaring coat, tie and long pants optional work wear and the acceptance of open neck shirts and short pants. Neptune stated that the some expressed grief, saying it was a breakdown of standard respectability and policy for dress elucidate showed the government supported social disorder. A number of critics who were move to the British dress style protested against the governments decision, a Port of Spa in layer and city deputy, Leo Pujadas, expressed his anger with the dress reform policy saying it was a drastic change and would weaken the social standard of traditional dress.The dress reform was linked to the Yankee culture, in which they would go to church wearing short-sleeved shirts that was out of their pants and no coats. According to Neptune, Pujadas viewed that it was a way of emulating the irresponsible Americans and hoped that Trinidadians continued to adopt the Europeans fashion style. Another critic expressed his view that with the dress reform people would not be able to distinguish the lads from the grownups and others saw it as a decline of civilization (Neptune, 1970). In today society, Trinidadians dress code is bohemian and westernized this is dated back from World War II and has become prominent with easier access to westernized culture particularly the United States of America.Social ChangesThe American base did not only trigger drastic economical and infrastr uctural changes in Trinidad, it also generated substantial social transformation. Traditionally women who bears a child out of wedlock was looked down on, however to the people who came to work on the bases held that position that a young woman did not have to wait till marriage to carry a child. Secondly with the large number of American soldiers entering the country, prostitution became prominent, and brothels were constructed nearby the base. Calypso in Trinidad was a medium of story telling events in the society, Calypsonians during this time sing about the increase of prostitution with the building of the American base. Lord Invaders song, Rum and Coca Cola (See Appendix B) in 1943 proclaimed women in Trinidad working for American money which referred to the enormous increase in Trinidadian women who were making their living as prostitutes with American soldiers as their clients. His lyrics stated If a Yankee comes to Trinidad, they got the young girls all going mad, Young gir ls say they treat them nice and Both mother and daughter, Working for the Yankee dollar (ITZCaribbean, 2004). These lyrics illustrate the locals referring the American soldiers as Yankees, and it talks about women working for American soldiers referring to prostitution. In 1945, an American group called the Andrews Sisters sang over the song which became a hit in the United States.In 1956, another calypsonian known as The Mighty Sparrow released a song called Jean and Dinah (See Appendix C) also proclaiming prostitution during and after the closing of the American base. His words were Well the girls in town feeling bad, No more Yankees in Trinidad. They going to close down the base for good, Them girls have to make out how they could and So when you bounce up Jean and Dinah, Rosita and Clementina, round the corner posing, Bet your life is something they selling, And if you catch them, You can get them all for nothing, Dont make no row, the Yankees gone, Sparrow take over now (elyric s, 2000)Again in sparrow lyrics American soldiers are referred to as Yankees, in addition he spoke about the large scale prostitution that the bases at once supported and the desperation of these prostitutes following the closure of several American military basesin Trinidad in the post war period.The American base did not only bring social issues to Trinidad but musicians were able to create music from American materials, according to Horne (2003) when the British captured Trinidad from Spain the Carnival festival was allowed to continue. Musicians at the time of poor areas used dry bamboo sticks as percussion instruments to accompany their parades however these illegal. With World War II and the entering of the Americans in Trinidad who brought fifty-five gallon steal oil drums, the Trinidadian musicians improvised and used these drums. They made dents, various cavities such as depth and shallow as well as different sizes which produced various musical sounds and scales. Musician s were poor and no formal musical training however they were able to coordinate and memorize the musical notes, thus the steel band was born (Horne, 2003). Today steel band is very popular and developed not only in Trinidad and Caribbean Islands but it is known throughout the worldAnother impact of the American base in Trinidad was the locals view on the American status. Trinidadians were not only attracted to the wages offered by the Americans, locals were in elated of the American outlook towards the base, Locals drawn towards the American base because of the adventure of the employment in which the base offered. According to Neptune working for Americans presented the opportunity to participate in an exciting new world and the desire for liberty and mutation by young people were satisfied by working on the base. Neptune referenced Samuel Selvons, A Brighter Sun, a story in about an Indo-Trinidadian called Bunsee become comically pompous and fancied himself as a man of prestige because had an office job with the Americans. The story demonstrated how American employment satisfied ambitions for progress into a modern world. Neptune also made reference to V.S Naipuals Miguel Street demonstrating the downside of the America base, in which the story talk about a character Hat, who appreciated that the American base was not here forever and it would not be smart to give up their jobs. Neptune also stated that other locals stayed away because base work was not in harmony with traditional concept of respectability (Neptune, 1970).The American base also brought crime and violence, during the American stay in Trinidad, the governor allowed the entry of Barbados immigrants to work for the Americans, In March 1942, a totally of 2,000 laborers came to Trinidad to work for the American at a rate of $1.19 (Neptune, 1970), with this the Americans layed off over a hundred locals thereby causing antagonism towards the Barbadians by the locals. On April 3, 1942, a group of B arbadians workers attacked and injured a number of locals at the Arima Princess cinema. The U.S authorities in an attempt to keep peace among the locals and issued a public notice stating that Barbadians were not the reason for the laying off the locals however the British sent home the Barbados workers to reduce the risk of violence. Secondly, racial tension emerged locals were worsen with American men since women were lured to them and would prostitute themselves. American were seen as superior by locals since they earned enormous amounts of money, in addition, their fashion and language were all factors that the locals admired.ConclusionWorld War II profoundly transformed the economy and society of Trinidad and Tobago as an outcome of the Base for Destroyers Agreement between the United States of America and Britain. Both positive and negative effects of the American base were evident. The American base in Trinidad made immense changes in the trade industry in which agriculture decreased and oil boomed. A large number of employment opportunities were created on the base as well as increased wages for workers on the base as well as domestic workers. The American base created the rise in prostitution and violence however it also created development of steel pan, according to Brereton (1982) it dismiss the myths of white supremacy as they, too, performed manual labor and consumed their earnings alongside Trinidadians. Brereton also went on to state that the presence of the United States helped prepare the country for the new era of mass electoral political (Brereton, 1982). The Americans in Trinidad also influenced the locals style of fashion locals also admired the American competence, technological advancement and status. Although the government suffered revenue due to maintenance of road and airports, the beneficial influence the American had on Trinidad was much greater.

Globalization Essays -- Business International Globalization

Globalization is necessary in the world. Different theories on the ideal of globalization provide distinct reasons on the need for globalization. The worlds advancements and technology help drive the need for globalization. Communities and organizations alike are affected by globalization, and littler countries benefit from the generosity of larger participants in the worlds market. Globalization, in the business sense, is to make a harvesting or service available in the global market. Any investment that is across national borders is also part of globalization. Many companies in the United States (US) have taken their product, service, or investment opportunities to former(a) countries. This affects the global economy. Just as the economy of the US affects legion(predicate) Americans, the global economy affects the citizens of the world. As any company that does affects the global economy, positive or proscribe affects may be realized. Many different theories support the concept of globalization. Tariffs are levied on a province-to-country basis. Tariffs are duties, also known as taxes, which each country puts on the imports and exports of that country. The government of the country in question wages a tariff. The World Trade Organization (WTO) oversees all countries. Absolute advantage supports the concept of globalization, because this concept ensures that one country can produce a product better and more efficient than another country. By importing or exporting this product or good, the countries that use this product can easily trade other products or goods. This helps countries produce the things to make them more efficient. Comparative advantage happens when the opportunity salute of producing goods differs from country to country, all... ...upport the reasoning behind the need globalization. Many countries benefit from the use of products and services from other countries. In turn, the countries all benefit from each other. The markets give ran k what the driving forces are, but for now, the largest driving force in the worlds economy today is technology. The effects of globalization can be seen in many different organizations and even communities across the US. Regional trading blocs help countries that would normally not be a participant in the world market. Globalization is will only make this worlds economy stronger. ReferencesBlundel, R., & Thatcher, M. (2014). Contrasting Local Responses to Globalization The Case of Volume Yacht Manufacturing in Europe. Web. 18 May 2015.Hill, C. (2008). internationalistic Business Competing in the Global Marketplace (7th ed.). New York McGraw-Hill.

GREECE :: essays research papers

GreeceThe two most dominating city-states in Greece of their time, capital of Greece and Sparta, were great rivals with two very different ways of life. Spartas overbearing phalanx and Athens impartial justice system and government are models for umpteen modern solar day countries. Even though these two city-states differ greatly from unrivaled another, they share many characteristics of their domain and their time period.Athens and Sparta were the two most powerful Grecian territories of their time. Like most cities of the same country, they have the same classical culture, worshipping the same Greek gods and speaking Greek. Like all Greeks, their people loved to talk and ensure stories. Although they fought against each other, their citizens equally had great amounts of pride for their entire country as well as their city-states. The two rivals were both devoted mainly to agriculture and ground their wealth, but not their success, on agriculture. Both also participated i n the annual Olympics, an ancient Greek national athletic competition which is now a ecumenic tradition. These to Greek city-states were the most feared city-states in all of Greece.Though Athens and Sparta were similar, they were also very different. Athens was the first democracy, and it was also the first to govern with trial by jury. Athens main accomplishment was that it had a very stiff Navy. It was the command of the sea and the head of the Naval Alliance, or the Delian League. Athens was the most feared city-state to fight at sea. Its other achievements were that is had excellent forms of art, architecture, drama and literature, philosophy, science, and medicine. It was very wealthy and had beautiful, uppity temples. The boys of Athens went to school between the ages of five and eighteen, where they learned reading, writing, mathematics, music, poetry, sports and gymnastics. The girls stayed at home and learned spinning, weave and domestic arts. Athens had well educated m en, a total sense of art, and an all-powerful navy.Sparta developed the most powerful military oligarchy of their time. They had a very hygienic army and were the most feared city-state to fight on land. Sparta was a portion of the Peloponnesian League and was the most powerful people in it. Its excellent military conquered many territories, which they controlled with slaves. Spartas sole achievement, other than military supremacy, was that its people possess a simple life style, with no care for the arts of Athens.GREECE essays research papers GreeceThe two most dominating city-states in Greece of their time, Athens and Sparta, were great rivals with two very different ways of life. Spartas overbearing military and Athens impartial justice system and government are models for many modern day countries. Even though these two city-states differ greatly from one another, they share many characteristics of their country and their time period.Athens and Sparta were the two most po werful Greek territories of their time. Like most cities of the same country, they have the same Greek culture, worshipping the same Greek gods and speaking Greek. Like all Greeks, their people loved to talk and tell stories. Although they fought against each other, their citizens equally had great amounts of pride for their entire country as well as their city-states. The two rivals were both devoted mainly to agriculture and based their wealth, but not their success, on agriculture. Both also participated in the annual Olympics, an ancient Greek national athletic competition which is now a worldwide tradition. These to Greek city-states were the most feared city-states in all of Greece.Though Athens and Sparta were similar, they were also very different. Athens was the first democracy, and it was also the first to govern with trial by jury. Athens main accomplishment was that it had a very strong Navy. It was the command of the sea and the head of the Naval Alliance, or the Delian League. Athens was the most feared city-state to fight at sea. Its other achievements were that is had excellent forms of art, architecture, drama and literature, philosophy, science, and medicine. It was very wealthy and had beautiful, extravagant temples. The boys of Athens went to school between the ages of five and eighteen, where they learned reading, writing, mathematics, music, poetry, sports and gymnastics. The girls stayed at home and learned spinning, weaving and domestic arts. Athens had well educated men, a good sense of art, and an all-powerful navy.Sparta developed the most powerful military oligarchy of their time. They had a very strong army and were the most feared city-state to fight on land. Sparta was a member of the Peloponnesian League and was the most powerful people in it. Its excellent military conquered many territories, which they controlled with slaves. Spartas sole achievement, other than military supremacy, was that its people possessed a simple life s tyle, with no care for the arts of Athens.